Week Three

PHILLP B. MEGGS - A HISTORY OF GRAPHIC DESIGN (2012)

Massey has an online version of this book which I have been reading. It has been very interesting as it provides an overview of graphic design from 5000 BCE right through to today, and gives insight into the complexities of transition and overlaps between these different stages. It is a reminder that these movements are not simple or linear, linking back to Williams Dominant, Residual and Emergent. This book has forced me to ask questions and look deeper than the surface. Meggs has identified these stages as such:

Bridge to the 20th Century 

• Graphic design and the Industrial Revolution (1760 - 1900)
• The Arts and Crafts Movement and its Heritage (1860 - 1950)
• Art Nouveau (1680 - 1910)
• The Genisis of 20th Century Design (1890 - 1915)

The Modernist Era

• The Influence of Modern Art (1890 - 1940)
• Pictorial Modernism (1890 - 1950)
• A New Language of Form (1900 - 1950)
• The Bauhaus and the New Typography (1910- 1960)
• The Modern Movement in America (1920 - 1960)

The Age of Information

• The International Typographic Style (1930 - 2000)
• The New York School (1930 - 2000)
• Corporate Identity and Visual Symbols (1940 - 1990)
• The Conceptual Image (1950 - 2000)
• Postmodern Design (1960-2000)
• National Visions Within a Global Dialogue (1950 - 2010) 
• The Digital Revolution - And Beyond (1970 - 2010)

A visual representation of the complex nature of history.

Week Three

WHAT IS POST-MODERNISM?

This week, our aim was to read and summarise a reading by Charles Jencks, What is Post-Modernism? It was first given as a paper at a conference in America and Germany in 1985, but the version we are reading is a revised, 1996 edition. 

"Many postmodern paintings, while engaging traditional styles of realism, simultaneously draw attention to their own artifice, to the fact that 'realism' is not real. For a good example, look at the painting on the cover of this book: a 1983 oil on canvas by Carlo Maria Mariani called La Mano Ubbidisce all'Intelleto (The Hand Obeys the Understanding). The figures look quite 'realistic', reminding us of classical Romans with their toga-like drapings and laurel-leaf crowns. But the high seriousness of the subject matter is broken when we notice that the figures are painting each other. This type of humorous playfulness disgusted Modernists, who took very seriously the responsibility of art and genius to elevate culture"
-How Postmodernism Serves (My) Faith: Questioning Truth in Language, Philosophy and Art. Crystal L Downing. (pg 86)  

After my third reading of the text, I wrote up what I believed to be the main points of the reading

• Post-modernism chooses us
• Post-modernism is transcendence 
• Post-modernism is not Anti-modernism
• Post-modernism rejects the totalising arguments of modernism
• Post-modernism is an overlap of co-existing world views 
• Post-modernism has gone beyond the inadequate world view of modernism, without specifying exactly where it is going 

Fragmentation
In comparison to Modernism, post-modernism is a lot more complex, with a lot more ideas overlapping each other.

Charles Jenks 'Evolutionary Tree' is a visual representation of the transition from Modernism to post-modernism. The seemingly straight forward ideas of Modernism become complicated.

Social Relativity
Post-modernism introduced the idea of how we stand relative to others, which complicated the idea of equality.

Jackie Nickerson (born 1960) took photographs of farm workers in South Africa, Malawi and Mozambique, making comparisons between them and considering the relation between her as the photographer, and them.  

Rhetoric
Post-modernism undermined the Modernist idea of 'truth' and the 'total work of art' by making use of the Rhetoric. Making art and design that made people think, to provoke thought and response. This way, the work is not complete until it is perceived by the viewer, and even then it is subjective. This introduction of the 'death of the author' idea is one that undermines the ideas of Modernism completely.

Jenny Holzer (born 1950) creates statements that can be perceived as statements on a number of different issues, a number of different ways. It is precarious, going against the completeness and security of Modernism.

The Incomplete
Also undermining the Modernist ideas of 'the total work of art' is the post-modern idea of incomplete design and art. Post-modernists acknowledge the idea of Whakamarama.

This instalment by Anthony Gormley is incomplete until the audience participates with it, but even then it has a sense of being incomplete. To me, this work shows the idea of Whakamarama, the acknowledgment that no one can have complete knowledge of something, or someone elses position. 

Information
In comparison to the Modernist idea of technology forever advancing society, post-modernists embrace the idea of information, ideas branching off each other, limitlessly. The intangible concept of information is ever changing and growing, but works hand in hand with technology. This is an example of how post-modernism cannot exist without Modernism, as they inform each other.

Barett Lyons visual interpretation of the internet (2010).

Represent
Modernists were obsess with the idea that an objects form should follow its function. Post-modernism starts to create objects that are representative of other things and ideas beyond itself.

The Michael Graves company created some design that was representative of other things, but it is still clear how they are very much informed by modernist design, with their simplicity and geometric forms. 

I also found this interesting when researching Michael Groves. This kettle has many complaints lodged against it as people interpreted it as a representation of Hitler. This could be a reflection of, not only people beginning to make representative art and design, but also that people are starting to look for it and expect it.

End of History
In post-modernism, there may be a sense that Western Capitalism has won, and that there is no more progress to be made.

Historicism and Citation
Where Modernism wanted to disconnect itself from history, post-modernism takes old things, which are iconic or nostalgic, and makes them new. It acknowledges the past without re-creating it.

When asked to design an advertisement for Swatch Watch in the 1980s, Paula Scher based her design off an iconic 1930s Swiss tourism poster. 

Figuration
In contrast to the abstraction of Modernism, which was about reducing things to their most refined geometric shapes and colours. Post-modernism has another take on this - representing things in the form of figures, which is still similar to abstraction.

The Aashi Beer Hall designed by Phillipe Starck, can be seen to represent a flowing, golden flame, contrasting with the solid, black building below it. The building to the left, can be seen to represent a golden pint of beer with foam on the top. This figuration is similar to abstraction, but it is more complex and open to interpretation. 

Regionalism/ Specifity
Undermining the Modernist ideas of Internationalism and Universality, post-modernism creates art and design that comments on or is specific to a certain place or government, acknowledging the differences between people and places which Modernism tried to ignore.

This design by Olivero Toscani (1993), is post-modern, as it comments on specific race issues within the UK, acknowledging differences between places and perceptions. 

Disintegration
Post-modernism looks to break down the ideas of Modernism. It breaks up the pieces of Modernism, but not the whole. Where Modernism was calm and collected, post-modernism had a sense of hanging on the edge, uncertainty.

Gordon Matta - Clark Splitting. Making the splitting of a house into art, embracing destruction and separation.

Wordiness

Where Modernism could be compared to Theology, with its religious-like pursuit of an idealised, Utopian future, post-modernism could be compared to Worldliness. Worldliness is defined as of or relating to this world, as contrasted with heaven or spiritual life. Post-modernism is about right here, right now, in this world, with an uncertain future. 


After looking in-depth at these segments of post-modernism, I re-read the reading and found that Jencks had discussed these ideas in his writing. I then re-wrote my main points as I could understand the reading more. 

• It is important to define the age that we are in so that we can understand ourselves
• Modernism cannot be un-done as it accumulates 
• Post-modernism is less confident in itself than modernism
• Post-modernism chooses us, as it is a natural response to Modernism 
• Post-modernism is simultaneously the continuation of Modernity and its transcendence 
• Post-modernism could not have occurred without Modernism
• Post-modernism rejects the totalising arguments of modernism
• Post-modernism is an overlap of co-existing world views 
• Post-modernism has gone beyond the inadequate world view of modernism, without specifying exactly where it is going 

Week Two 

INITIAL IDEA FOR COMPONENT TWO

For component two of the assignment, I have decided to research Marcel Duchamps Fountain. I have chosen this case study because I think it will contain some interesting complexities that directly relate to the readings we have been doing. I beleive Fountain to be ultimately a post-modern artwork, however, it was created during the early stages of modernism, which make it very radical for the time and also a emergent idea. It is also interesting because a urinal is ultimately a modernist piece of design, the form is dictated by the function, however Duchamp places it in a post-modern context. I think there are some interesting ideas surrounding this that Duchamp himself was probably not aware of. I intend to begin research on this. 

Week Two 

MODERNISM IN DESIGN

This week our aim was to read and summarise Paul Greenhahlgs introduction to Modernism in Design. 

I followed the same process as I did for the last summary, except I found that since this reading was so much longer, I had to split it into sections in order to identify his main points. I also had to watch some videos and documentaries on Modernism in order to put this reading into more context, as I initially had a very limited understanding of Modernism. 

• Modernism became a movement that was able to be analysed with the establishment of post-modernism.
• There were two stages of modernism; the Pioneer phase, and the International phase.
• The 12 theoretic features which characterised Modernism were decompartmentalisation, social morality, truth, the total work of art, technology, function, progress, anti-historicism, abstraction, Internationalism/universality, transformation of the consciousness and theology.
• Post-modernism shone light on the idealistic and romantic nature of modernism, and also recognised some of the contradictions and flaws that existed within it.

Then I re-read the reading and had my first attempt at a summary draft:

In Modernism in Design, Greenhalgh explains that Modernism was not realised as a time-period until the worlds came into a post-modern context. Modernism, he believes, had two stages. Pioneer Modernism, which he describes as a movement away from history and tradition, which developed into International Modernism, a striving for a 'Universal Truth'. He explains how design became dictated by its function and production, and art by its form. Art and design were stripped back to their essential elements. He then explains the flaws and contradictions that existed within Modernism, that were realised with the emergence of Post-Modernism. These include the realisation that there is no 'Universal Truth' as everything is relative, and that in its aim to eliminate difference between people, it was opressing self-identity. 

In class, we worked on defining and unpacking each the 12 tenets of modernism that Greenhalgh identified

Decompartmentalisation 

In the context of the post-war turmoil, there was a desire for harmonic, human-made order. Modernism aimed to break down barriers between aspects of life and create things that were free from association.

A good example of decompartmentalisation is the Schroder house, designer in 1924 by Gerrit Reitveld. The design of the space was flexible, with no heirachy of space, collapsable walls, accessible and designed for ease of use. Each space flows into the next, breaking down the barriers between different segments of living (e.g sleeping, eating). The parts of the house which would get the most dirty are painted black, for practicality. 

Social Morality

The aim of Modernist design was to ultimately improve the conditions of the masses. Design was ordered, simple and functional, designed to be practical for mass-production. It was stripped down to the bare essentials, free from ornaments, and designed to be affordable.

Walter Gropius was a modernist architect. His work demonstrates the way that Modernist design worked towards improving life for the masses, efficiently and affordably. It was rational, functional, organised, and designed for maximum utilisation. 

Truth

Modernism was obsessed with be 'correct' and 'appropriate'. It was built on the Idealist view that there was an ultimate truth, universally applicable to everyone. 

The Total Work of Art

Modernist art and design aimed to create harmonious union. Perfection was perceived to be reached when something had only the bare necessities that it needed to function. Things needed to be long-lasting, inexpensive and sustainable.

Technology

Modernism was enthusiastic about the contributions that new technologies could make to their larger social program. They had confidence that technology made life better for the masses. 

Function

A key part of Modernism was the idea that 'form follows function'. Things were design for ease of use, rather than decoration. Aesthetics became secondary to this larger goal. This created a minimalist, straight forward, industrial aesthetic.

Here is a teapot from the late 19th century to compare to the modernist teapot. This is decorative, and has aesthetic intentions other than ease of use and reproduction. It was designed to be hand-crafted, rather than mass-produced.

This teapot, designed in 1924 by Marianne Brandt (who studied at Bauhaus), is a good example of design being centred around functionality. The design has been reduced down to fundamental geometric forms, designed to be simple, elegant and functional. The simple geometric shapes are also easy to be reproduced for mass production. 

Progress

There was a Modernist confidence that life can and will get better, and a belief that design was an important part of that improvement. They perceived change to be advance.

Anti-Historicism 

Modernism wanted to remove itself from history. It rejected the past and looked forward to a Utopian future. Art and design strived to exist outside of history, without possessing connotations as to where it came from.

This 1925 typography by Herbert Bayer (student and teacher of Bauhaus), is a good example of Modernisms attempt to remove itself from the past. Bayer wanted to move away from medieval script type typography. Instead of having both uppercase and lowercase, as they both make the same sound, he simplified his type down to only lowercase. He wanted to create something minimal and new. 

Abstraction

Modernism rejected older styles and concerns. They pursued ultimate purity. They abstracted things to their essential elements, while retaining the fundamental laws of art and design. One way they did this was by representing an idea simply through colour, which was believed to be a Universal means of communication.

This painting, Homage to the Square: Dissolving/Vanishing (1951) by Josef Albers, is centred around colour and form. This is reflective of the Modernist belief that form and colour can be reduced to their essentials and analysed separately, and that this analysis and understanding would lead to better design. It is an example of the Modernist striving for purity, to find the pure, simple essence of something.

Internationalism/Universality

Modernism rejected the ideas of nationalism, attempting to eliminate difference by seeking an ultimate truth which would transcend national borders and historic styles.

This painting by Piet Mondrian, Composition A, 1923, is an example of how Modernism attempted to achieve a Universal aesthetic language. His paintings are free from association of the outside world.

Transformation of the Consciousness

It was the goal of Modernism to pursue the masses to take on this new, modern consciousness. 

Theology

Modernism was almost religious in the way that people believed in it and followed it, with the belief that they were progressing toward a social Utopia in the future. 

Week One 

IMAGE TEXT STRATEGY

The first part of the lesson was about introducing us to the module. The aim of the module is essentially to develop a critical appreciation of change and context within visual, material and spatial cultures of art and design. 

An understanding of change and context within art and design is important because our world is becoming more visual and we need to understand what we see and use and how it is affecting us. For example, how have smart phones changed our behaviours? As artists and designers, an understanding of the cultural significance of our work is important. 

DOMINANT, RESIDUAL AND EMERGENT

This week our aim was to read and summarise Williams, R. (1977). Dominant, residual and emergent. In Marxism and Literature (p. 121-127). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

I began by reading through the entire thing. I then read it a second time, highlighting, taking notes and looking up words as I went. 

Epochal - Characterising epoch. A particular period of time in history or a persons life. 

Feudal - According to, resembling or denoting the system of feudalism. Out-dated or old fashioned. 

Bourgeois - Belonging to the middle class, typically with reference to perceived materialistic values or conventional attitudes. 

Then I read it a third time, put it aside and wrote up what the main points were from my perspective as a list. 

• The complexity of culture
• Putting culture in context (in relation to residual and emergent) in order for it to make sense
• Not seeing culture as static
• Seeing a culture as a process rather than just an 'epoch'
• We know nothing about a point in time if we do not look at what came before and after
• An understanding that a time period will contain active elements of its past, and there is always opposition. The dominant will never include everyone. 
• An understanding requires comparison

After writing up the main points, I re-read the text, put it aside and gave a rough summary a go, trying to link all the main points into a concise paragraph. 

In the chapter Dominant, Residual and Emergent, Williams discusses the complexity of culture. He believes that a culture should never be seen as static, as it is constantly evolving and moving. He argues that a culture should not be analysed is isolation from its past or future, as these are always informing and informed by the present. He explains that, in order to understand any point in time, it must also be understood that a time period also contains active elements of its past, as well as opposition to the hegemony, as the dominant will never include everyone. He believes that this must be understood in order for a historian to be able to fully analyse a culture, as understanding is made through comparison and context. 

In the second lesson, we were asked to define the terms residual, dominant and emergent and give examples for each. My definitions were:

Residual

Residual culture is the elements of the past that are actively a part of the present. The residual will partly inform the dominant culture, as it is never in complete isolation from what has come before it. Residual culture also provides insight into the dominant culture, as it reveals what the dominant culture rejects or suppresses from it's past. 

For example:

• Our culture is not dominantly Christian anymore, yet we still retain ingrained Christian values that inform what we do and how we behave.
• In the 1920s, the flapper girl fashion styles were rebelling against the constraints of the Victorian era. This could not be understood without an understanding of that era, as it informed the rebellion.
•  Post-modernism could not be understood without an understanding of modernism.

Dominant

At any one time, there will be a dominant culture. This dominant culture will posses an ideology that controls thinking, being and understanding, without appearing to be doing so. This ideology will be maintained in a subtle way through institutions and communications. However, the dominant school of thought is complicated by the residual and emergent cultures, never encompassing everyone, everything or every thought. Dominant cultures appear to be timeless, but the dominant and emergent remind us that they are temporary.

Emergent

New ideas are being created constantly that oppose or are different to the hegemony. Williams divides these into two categories, the alternative, and the oppositional. Some of these ideas will eventually take the place as the dominant.
For example:

• Marcel Duchamp's artwork Fountain can be interpreted as possessing post-modern ideas, but was created in the early stages of modernism. This is proof that, even when modernism itself was only just being established, new ideas were already being introduced. 

Why are we reading Williams?

I think it is important to read Williams and to keep his ideas in mind when we think about Modernism and Post-modernism, and also when conducting historical analysis in general. This is because we need to keep in mind that time-periods and movements are not simple or static, and perceiving them as such can be easier, but also very limiting and inaccurate. We need to acknowledge these complications and contradictions in order to have an understanding that is as complete as we can manage.

After some class discussion, defining these terms and thinking about examples of each, I gave the summary another go.I will continue to refine this summary.